Bibliography

Driver, G. R. “Three Technical Terms in the Pentateuch.” Journal of Semitic Studies 1, no. 2 (1956): 97–105.

Dussaud, R. Les Origines Cananéennes du Sacrifice Israélite. Paris: Leroux, 1921.

Hartley, John E. Leviticus. Word Biblical Commentary 4. Dallas: Word, 1992.

Kiuchi, Nobuyoshi. Leviticus. Apollos Old Testament Commentary 3. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2007.

Levine, Baruch. Leviticus. JPS Torah Commentary. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989.

Milgrom, Jacob. Leviticus 1–16. New York: Doubleday, 1991.

Nielsen, Kjeld. Incense in Ancient Israel. Vetus Testamentum Supplement 38. Leiden: Brill, 1986.

Bryan C. Bogue

Memphis (נֹף, noph; מֹף, moph). City on the west bank of the Nile River 12 miles south of modern Cairo. The site served as the capital and residence of the kings of Egypt during the majority of biblical history and ancient Egyptian history. The name is derived from the Greek Μέμθεως (Memtheōs) in an attempt to pronounce the Egyptian mn-nfr.

Prior to the exile (587/6 bc), some Judaeans fled to Egypt and settled in Memphis (Jer 44:1). The location is also the subject of some biblical prophecies (Isa 19:13; Jer 2:16; 46:14, 19; Ezek 30:13, 16; Hos 9:6). In these oracles, Memphis is used to refer to the whole nation of Egypt.

Biblical Relevance

Isaiah wrote during the turbulent Third Intermediate period (24th and 25th Dynasties), when Egypt was divided and under the control of Libyan kings in the north and Egyptian princes in the south. Isaiah prophesied that Egypt would continue in chaos and that the internal strife experienced by the divided nation was God’s judgment for Egypt’s transgressions (Isa 19:13).

Jeremiah prophesied after Egypt was again unified under the 26th Dynasty during the reigns of Psamtek I, Neco (Nekau II), and Psamtek II. Judah is chastised by God for looking to Egypt and Assyria for assistance when God should be the source of Judah’s strength (Jer 2:18). The metaphor of the Egyptians who have “shaved the crown of your head” likely means that the Egyptians brought disgrace and devastation upon Israel (Jer 2:16).

Jeremiah 46 recounts the battle where the Egyptian army attempted to aid the Assyrians against Babylon. Neco was defeated, and Jeremiah’s oracle asserts that God has brought defeat to the Egyptians as judgment. Verse 14 uses Memphis in parallel with Migdol and Tahpanhes, representing the breadth of the nation of Egypt. The oracle shows that Memphis—the ruling city—will be destroyed in the coming Babylonian invasion (Jer 46:19).

Ezekiel prophesied during the Babylonian exile. His oracle was that Nebuchadnezzar would invade the nation of Egypt. In the prophecy, God destroys Egypt as judgment and to make Himself known to the Egyptians (Ezek 30:19). The prophet mentions Memphis as a religious center, saying that God will “put an end to the images in Memphis” (Ezek 30:13). Ezekiel poetically describes all of Egypt, noting the destruction of Zoan, Thebes, Pelusium, Memphis, Heliopolis, Bubastis, and Tahpanhes.

Hosea prophesied in the middle of the eighth century bc, when Egypt was embroiled in the chaos of the Third Intermediate Period. Hosea 9:6 describes a judgment for Israel. During this judgment, even if the Israelites escape from Israel, the people will be buried in Memphis.

A final mention of Memphis occurs in Jer 44:1, where the prophet provides an oracle of warning to those who fled the Babylonian invasion and are now living in Egypt. The text identifies three cities where Israelites have settled in southern Egypt: Migdol, Tahpanhes, and Memphis. The Judahites are condemned for not leaving a remnant of the people in Judah, for providing offerings to false Egyptian gods, for not showing humility and remorse to God, and for not following His laws and decrees. The oracle says that all who flee to Egypt will die in Egypt as a judgment.